The science of psychology (Kap 4)

neurons the functional building blocks of the nervous system; cells that transmit the electrical activity that underlies psychological processes

glial cell from the Greek for ´glue´; cells surrounding neurons, holding them in place, providing the nutrients neurons need and isolating towins that would harm the neuron

synapse a connection between neurons

sensory neurons carry input messages from the sense organs to the spinal cord and brain

motor neurons transmit output impulses from the brain and spinal cord to the bodys muscles and organs

interneurons perform connective or associative functions within the nervous system

peripheral nervous system contains all the neural structures that lie outside the brain and spinal cord

somatic nervous system consists of sensory neurons that are specialized to transmitt messages from the eyes, ears and other sensory receptors, and motor neurons that send messages from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles that control out voluntary movements

automatic nervous system senses the bodys internal functions and controls the glands and the smooth (involuntary) muscles that form the heart, the blood vessels, and the lining of the stomach and intestines

sympathetic nervous system has an activation or arousal function, and tends to act as a total unit

parasympathetic nervous system is far more specific in its opposing actions, affecting one or a few organs at a time; in general, it slows down body processes and maintains a state of tranquility

homeostasis a delicately balanced or constant internal state

central nervous system contains the brains and the spinal cord, which connects most parts of the peripheral nervous system with the brain

dendrites specialized receiving units like antennae that collect messages from neighbouring neurons and send them on to the cell body

axon conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands

resting potential internal difference of around 70 millivolts

action potential electrical shift across the neural membrane, which lasts about a millisecond and propagates electrical signals down an axon

absolute refractory period period during which the membrane is nnot excitable and cannot discharge another impulse

graded potential changes in the negative resting potential that do not reach the -50 millivolt action potential threshold

myelin sheath a whitish, fatty insulation layer derived from glial cells during development

synaptic cleft a tiny gap between the axon terminal and the next neuron

neurotrasmitters chemicals released by nerve cells that allow them to communicate with one another

synaptic vesicles chambers within the axon terminals

receptor sites large protein molecules embedded in the receiving neurons cell membrane

re-uptake the transmitter molecules are taken back into the presynaptic axon terminals

acetylcholine (ACh) a neurotransmitter involved in a muscle activity and memory

botulinum bacteria toxin forming bacteria, a mild form of which is known commonly as botox

neuromodulators chemicals that modulate the activity of diverse populations of neurons in the nervous system

psychoactive drugs chemicals that produce alterations in consciousness, emotions and behaviour

agonist a drug that increase the activity of neurotrasmitter

antagonist a drug that inhibits or decrease the action of neurotransmitter

neuropsychology the study of the function of the brain by investigating the effects of brain damage on mental functions

Wenickes aphasia results from damage in the temporal lobe, and is primarily manifested as difficulties with speech comprehension

brocas aphasia results from damage in the frontal love and is primarily manifested as difficulties with the production of speech

electroencephalography (EEG) measures the activity of large groups of neurons trhough a series of large electrodes placed on the scalp

magnetoencephalography (MEG) a brain imaging method that detects activity via the magnetic fields generated by brain activity

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) creates images based on how atoms in livin tissue respond to a magnetic pulse delivered by the device

diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) measures how water molecules diffuse in tissue

functional MRI (fMRI) can produce pictures of blood flow in the brain taken less than a second apart

positron-emission tomography (PET) scans measure brain activity, including metabolism, blood flow and neurotransmitter activity

funtional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) by shining near-infrared light into the brain and measuring the wats in which its reflected, fNRIS can tell us about which part of the brain are using msot oxygen

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) electrical stimulation of a targeted part of the brain via magnetic pulses sent from an eletromagnetic coil

transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) electrical stimulation of the brain by applying a low current to the scalp

hindbrain the lowest and most primitive level of the brain

brain stem spans the hindbrain and midbrain; hindbrain structures in the brain stem include the medulla and the pons; the brain stem supports a number of vital psychological functions

medulla plays an important role in vital body functions such as heart rate and respiration

pons lies just above the medulla and relays sensory information between the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum

cerebellum concerned primarily with muscular movements co-ordination, but also plays a role in learning and memory

midbrain cointains clusters of sensory and motor neurons

reticular formation acts as a kind of sentry, both alerting higher centres of the brain that messages are coming, and then either blocking those messages of allowing them to go forward

forebrain the brains most recently evolved portion

cerebrum the most superior part of the forebrain, comprising the cerebral cortex and several more central structures

thalamus sometimes likened to a switchboard that organizes inputs from sensory organs and routes them to the appropriate areas of the brain

hypothalamus plays a major role in many aspect of motivation and emotion, including sexual behaviour, temperature regulation, sleeping, eating, drinking and aggression

limbic system helps co-ordinate the behaviours needed to satisfy the motivational and emotional urges that arise in the hypothalamus; it is also involved in memory

hippocampus involved in forming a retrieving memories

amygdala underlies emotional behaviours, particularly those linked to aggresion and fear

cerebral cortex 0, 63 cm-thick sheet, consisting primaily of grey matter

otor cortex controls the 600 or more muscles involved in voluntary body movements

somatosensory cortex receives sensory input that gives rise to our sensations of heat, touch and cold, and to our senses of balance and body movement (kinaesthesis)

association cortex involved in many important mental functions, including perception, language and thought

prefrontal cortex located just behind the forehead, the seat of the so-called executive functions

corpus callosum a neural brigde consisting of white matter tracts that act as a major communication link between the two hemispheres and allow them to function together

lateralization refers to the relatively greater localization of a function in one hemisphere or the other

aphasia the partial or total loss of the ability to communicate

neural plasticity the ability of neurons and brain areas and network to change in structure and function

neurogenesis the production of new neurons in the nervous system

cognitive neurogenomics the study of how the genome of an organism influences the development of the cognitive functions of its nervous system

neural stem cells immature ´uncommitted´ cells that can mature into any type of neurons or glial cell needed by the brain

endocrine system consists of numerous hormone-secreting glands distributed throughout the body

hormones chemical messengers that are secreted from its glands into the bloodstream

adrenal glands twin structures perched on top of the kidneys that serve as ´hormone factories´ producing and secreting about 50 different hormones

antigens foreign substances that trigger a biochemical response from the immune system

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