Espeland & Stevens (1998) & (2008

Turning qualities into numbers to compare them Commensuration

Creating a single scale to rank different things Common metric

Making some features visible and hiding others Simplification and erasure

People change behavior when they are measured Reactivity

Numbers reshape what actors value and do Performativity of measures

Rules and categories used to make comparisons Classification schemes

Ranked lists that create winners and losers Rankings

Costs of reducing complexity to a single value Loss of context

Making judgments appear objective by using numbers Quantification

Anticipating how metrics affect behavior Anticipatory reactivity

Managing by indicators rather than judgment Audit culture

Belief that numbers are neutral and apolitical Illusion of objectivity

Numbers governing organizations and people Numerical governance

Targets that drive gaming and tunnel vision Goal displacement

How measurement changes identities and roles Metric subjectivity

Design choices that embed values into metrics Value laden design

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